IT Governance Essay Example for Free

IT Governance Essay A governance view that consists of the business governance of IT – ensuring that IT supports and enables the business strategy – and the functional governance of IT – ensuring that the IT function itself runs efficiently and effectively (http://www.takinggovernanceforward.org). Executive Summary Successful enterprises recognize the benefits of information technology and use it to drive their stakeholders’ value. These enterprises also understand and manage the associated risks, such as increasing regulatory compliance and critical dependence of many business processes on information technology (IT). The need for assurance about the value of IT, the management of IT-related risks and increased requirements for control over information are now understood as key elements of enterprise governance. Value, risk and control constitute the core of IT governance. Control Objectives for Information and related Technology (COBIT ®) provides good practices across a domain and process framework and presents activities in a manageable and logical structure. COBIT’s good practices represent the consensus of experts. They are strongly focused more on control, less on execution. These practices will help optimize IT-enabled investments, ensure service delivery and provide a measure against which to judge when things do go wrong. For IT to be successful in delivering against business requirements, management should put an internal control system or framework in place. The COBIT control framework contributes to these needs by: * Making a link to the business requirements * Organizing IT activities into a generally accepted process model * Identifying the major IT resources to be leveraged * Defining the management control objectives to be considered An answer to these requirements of determining and monitoring the appropriate IT control and performance level is COBIT’s definition of: * Benchmarking of IT process performance and capability, expressed as maturity models, derived from the Software Engineering Institute’s Capability Maturity Model (CMM) * Goals and metrics of the IT processes to define and measure their outcome and performance based on the principles of Robert Kaplan and David Norton’s balanced business scorecard * Activity goals for getting these processes under control, based on COBIT’s control objectives The assessment of process capability based on the COBIT maturity models is a key part of IT governance implementation. After identifying critical IT processes and controls, maturity modeling enables gaps in capability to be identified and demonstrated to management. Action plans can then be developed to bring these processes up to the desired capability target level. Thus, COBIT supports IT governance by providing a framework to ensure that: * IT is aligned with the business * IT enables the business and maximizes benefits * IT resources are used responsibly * IT risks are managed appropriately Figure 1 Adopted for this study Governance Focus Areas * Strategic alignment focuses on ensuring the linkage of business and IT plans; defining, maintaining and validating the IT value proposition; and aligning IT operations with enterprise operations. * Value delivery is about executing the value proposition throughout the delivery cycle, ensuring that IT delivers the promised benefits against the strategy, concentrating on optimizing costs and proving the intrinsic value of IT. * Resource management is about the optimal investment in, and the proper management of, critical IT resources: applications, information, infrastructure and people. Key issues relate to the optimization of knowledge and infrastructure. * Risk management requires risk awareness by senior corporate officers, a clear understanding of the enterprise’s appetite for risk, understanding of compliance requirements, transparency about the significant risks to the enterprise and embedding of risk management responsibilities into the organization. * Performance measurement tracks and monitors strategy implementation, project completion, resource usage, process performance and service delivery, using, for example, balanced scorecards that translate strategy into action to achieve goals measurable beyond conventional accounting. COBIT Framework A control framework for IT governance defines the reasons IT governance is needed, the stakeholders and what it needs to accomplish. Why? Increasingly, top management is realizing the significant impact that information can have on the success of the enterprise. Management expects heightened understanding of the way IT is operated and the likelihood of its being leveraged successfully for competitive advantage. In particular, top management needs to know if information is being managed by the enterprise so that it is: * Likely to achieve its objectives * Resilient enough to learn and adapt * Judiciously managing the risks it faces * Appropriately recognizing opportunities and acting upon them Successful enterprises understand the risks and exploit the benefits of IT and find ways to deal with: * Aligning IT strategy with the business strategy * Assuring investors and shareholders that a ‘standard of due care’ around mitigating IT risks is being met by the organization * Cascading IT strategy and goals down into the enterprise * Obtaining value from IT investments * Providing organizational structures that facilitate the implementation of strategy and goals * Creating constructive relationships and effective communication between the business and IT, and with external partners * Measuring IT’s performance Enterprises cannot deliver effectively against these business and governance requirements without adopting and implementing a governance and control framework for IT to: * Make a link to the business requirements * Make performance against these requirements transparent * Organize its activities into a generally accepted process model * Identify the major resources to be leveraged * Define the management control objectives to be considered Furthermore, governance and control frameworks are becoming a part of IT management good practice and are an enabler for establishing IT governance and complying with continually increasing regulatory requirements. IT good practices have become significant due to a number of factors: * Business managers and boards demanding a better return from IT investments, i.e., that IT delivers what the business needs to enhance stakeholder value * Concern over the generally increasing level of IT expenditure * The need to meet regulatory requirements for IT controls in areas such as privacy and financial reporting (e.g., the US Sarbanes-Oxley Act, Basel II) and in specific sectors such as finance, pharmaceutical and healthcare * The selection of service providers and the management of service outsourcing and acquisition * Increasingly complex IT-related risks, such as network security * IT governance initiatives that include adoption of control frameworks and good practices to help monitor and improve critical IT activities to increase business value and reduce business risk * The need to optimize costs by following, where possible, standardized, rather than specially developed, approaches * The growing maturity and consequent acceptance of well-regarded frameworks, such as COBIT, IT Infrastructure Library (ITIL), ISO 27000 series on information security-related standards, ISO 9001:2000 Quality Management Systems—Requirements, Capability Maturity Model ® Integration (CMMI), Projects in Controlled Environments 2 (PRINCE2) and A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) * The need for enterprises to assess how they are performing against generally accepted standards and their peers (benchmarking) Who? A governance and control framework needs to serve a variety of internal and external stakeholders, each of whom has specific needs: * Stakeholders within the enterprise who have an interest in generating value from IT investments: * Those who make investment decisions * Those who decide about requirements * Those who use IT services * Internal and external stakeholders who provide IT services: * Those who manage the IT organization and processes * Those who develop capabilities * Those who operate the services * Internal and external stakeholders who have a control/risk responsibility: * Those with security, privacy and/or risk responsibilities * Those performing compliance functions * Those requiring or providing assurance services What? To meet the requirements listed in the previous section, a framework for IT governance and control should: * Provide a business focus to enable alignment between business and IT objectives * Establish a process orientation to define the scope and extent of coverage, with a defined structure enabling easy navigation of content * Be generally acceptable by being consistent with accepted IT good practices and standards and independent of specific technologies * Supply a common language with a set of terms and definitions that are generally understandable by all stakeholders * Help meet regulatory requirements by being consistent with generally accepted corporate governance standards (e.g., COSO) and IT controls expected by regulators and external auditors IT Resources The IT organization delivers against these goals by a clearly defined set of processes that use people skills and technology infrastructure to run automated business applications while leveraging business information. The IT resources identified in COBIT can be defined as follows: * Applications are the automated user systems and manual procedures that process the information. * Information is the data, in all their forms, input, processed and output by the information systems in whatever form is used by the business. * Infrastructure is the technology and facilities (i.e., hardware, operating systems, database management systems, networking, multimedia, and the environment that houses and supports them) that enable the processing of the applications. * People are the personnel required to plan, organize, acquire, implement, deliver, support, monitor and evaluate the information systems and services. They may be internal, outsourced or contracted as required. Processes To govern IT effectively, it is important to appreciate the activities and risks within IT that need to be managed. They are usually ordered into the responsibility domains of plan, build, run and monitor. The four interrelated domains of COBIT are: * Plan and Organize (PO)—Provides direction to solution delivery (AI) and service delivery (DS) * Acquire and Implement (AI)—Provides the solutions and passes them to be turned into services * Deliver and Support (DS)—Receives the solutions and makes them usable for end users * Monitor and Evaluate (ME)—Monitors all processes to ensure that the direction provided is followed Plan and organize (PO) This domain covers strategy and tactics, and concerns the identification of the way IT can best contribute to the achievement of the business objectives. The realization of the strategic vision needs to be planned, communicated and managed for different perspectives. A proper organization as well as technological infrastructure should be put in place. This domain typically addresses the following management questions: * Are IT and the business strategy aligned? * Is the enterprise achieving optimum use of its resources? * Does everyone in the organization understand the IT objectives? * Are IT risks understood and being managed? * Is the quality of IT systems appropriate for business needs? Acquire and implement (AI) To realize the IT strategy, IT solutions need to be identified, developed or acquired, as well as implemented and integrated into the business process. In addition, changes in and maintenance of existing systems are covered by this domain to make sure the solutions continue to meet business objectives. This domain typically addresses the following management questions: * Are new projects likely to deliver solutions that meet business needs? * Are new projects likely to be delivered on time and within budget? * Will the new systems work properly when implemented? * Will changes be made without upsetting current business operations? Deliver and support (DS) This domain is concerned with the actual delivery of required services, which includes service delivery, management of security and continuity, service support for users, and management of data and operational facilities. It typically addresses the following management questions: * Are IT services being delivered in line with business priorities? * Is IT costs optimized? * Is the workforce able to use the IT systems productively and safely? * Are adequate confidentiality, integrity and availability in place for information security? Monitor and evaluate (ME) All IT processes need to be regularly assessed over time for their quality and compliance with control requirements. This domain addresses performance management, monitoring of internal control, regulatory compliance and governance. It typically addresses the following management questions: * Is IT’s performance measured to detect problems before it is too late? * Does management ensure that internal controls are effective and efficient? * Can IT performance be linked back to business goals? * Are adequate confidentiality, integrity and availability controls in place for information security? Processes need Controls Control is defined as the policies, procedures, practices and organizational structures designed to provide reasonable assurance that business objectives will be achieved and undesired events will be prevented or detected and corrected. IT control objectives provide a complete set of high-level requirements to be considered by management for effective control of each IT process. They: * Are statements of managerial actions to increase value or reduce risk * Consist of policies, procedures, practices and organizational structures * Are designed to provide reasonable assurance that business objectives will be achieved and undesired events will be prevented or detected and corrected Enterprise management needs to make choices relative to these control objectives by: * Selecting those that are applicable * Deciding upon those that will be implemented * Choosing how to implement them (frequency, span, automation, etc.) * Accepting the risk of not implementing those that may apply The control objectives are identified by a two-character domain reference (PO, AI, DS and ME) plus a process number and a control objective number. In addition to the control objectives, each COBIT process has generic control requirements that are identified by PCn, for process control number. They should be considered together with the process control objectives to have a complete view of control requirements. PC1 Process Goals and Objectives Define and communicate specific, measurable, actionable, realistic, results-oriented and timely process goals and objectives for the effective execution of each IT process. Ensure that they are linked to the business goals and supported by suitable metrics. PC2 Process Ownership Assign an owner for each IT process, and clearly define the roles and responsibilities of the process owner. Include, for example, responsibility for process design, interaction with other processes, accountability for the end results, measurement of process performance and the identification of improvement opportunities. PC3 Process Repeatability Design and establish each key IT process such that it is repeatable and consistently produces the expected results. Provide for a logical but flexible and saleable sequence of activities that will lead to the desired results and is agile enough to deal with exceptions and emergencies. Use consistent processes, where possible, and tailor only when unavoidable. PC4 Roles and Responsibilities Define the key activities and end deliverables of the process. Assign and communicate unambiguous roles and responsibilities for effective and efficient execution of the key activities and their documentation as well as accountability for the process end deliverables. PC5 Policy, Plans and Procedures Define and communicate how all policies, plans and procedures that drive an IT process are documented, reviewed, maintained, approved, stored, communicated and used for training. Assign responsibilities for each of these activities and, at appropriate times, review whether they are executed correctly. Ensure that the policies, plans and procedures are accessible, correct, understood and up to date. PC6 Process Performance Improvement Identify a set of metrics that provides insight into the outcomes and performance of the process. Establish targets that reflect on the process goals and performance indicators that enable the achievement of process goals. Define how the data are to be obtained. Compare actual measurements to targets and take action upon deviations, where necessary. Align metrics, targets and methods with IT’s overall performance monitoring approach. Effective controls reduce risk, increase the likelihood of value delivery and improve efficiency because there will be fewer errors and a more consistent management approach. In addition, COBIT provides examples for each process that are illustrative, but not prescriptive or exhaustive, of: * Generic inputs and outputs * Activities and guidance on roles and responsibilities in a Responsible, Accountable, Consulted and Informed (RACI) chart * Key activity goals (the most important things to do) * Metrics Business and it controls The enterprise’s system of internal controls impacts IT at three levels: * At the executive management level, business objectives are set, policies are established and decisions are made on how to deploy and manage the resources of the enterprise to execute the enterprise strategy. The overall approach to governance and control is established by the board and communicated throughout the enterprise. The IT control environment is directed by this top-level set of objectives and policies. * At the business process level, controls are applied to specific business activities. Most business processes are automated and integrated with IT application systems, resulting in many of the controls at this level being automated as well. These controls are known as application controls. However, some controls within the business process remain as manual procedures, such as authorization for transactions, separation of duties and manual reconciliations. Therefore, controls at the business process level are a combination of manual controls operated by the business and automated business and application controls. Both are the responsibility of the business to define and manage, although the application controls require the IT function to support their design and development. * To support the business processes, IT provides IT services, usually in a shared service to many business processes, as many of the development and operational IT processes are provided to the whole enterprise, and much of the IT infrastructure is provided as a common service (e.g., networks, databases, operating systems and storage). The controls applied to all IT service activities are known as IT general controls. The reliable operation of these general controls is necessary for reliance to be placed on application controls. For example, poor change management could jeopardize (accidentally or deliberately) the reliability of automated integrity checks. Summary Establishing an effective governance framework includes defining organizational structures, processes, leadership, roles, and responsibilities to ensure that enterprise IT investments are aligned and delivered in accordance with enterprise strategies and objectives. Control over the process of providing IT governance that satisfies the business requirements for IT of integrating IT governance with corporate governance objectives and complying with laws, regulations and contracts. By focusing on preparing board reports on IT strategy, performance and risks, and responding to governance requirements in line with board directions. Achieved by * Establishing IT governance framework integrated into corporate governance * Obtaining independent assurance over the IT governance status. Measured by * Frequency of board reporting on IT to stakeholders (including maturity) * Frequency of reporting from IT to the board (including maturity) * Frequency of independent reviews of IT compliance References * Cobit 4.1 http://www.itgi.org * IT Governance Harvard University March 31, 2008 * Governance Objective and Governance views of IT (Mapping) http://www.takinggovernanceforward.org

British Management Styles

British Management Styles 1. Introduction Some would argue that since industrialization is a rational, orderly process, striving for universal efficiency with standardizing effect, managers would clearly be the same sort of people doing the same kind of things in the same ways. This assumption could be extended to the companies themselves. Manufacturing companies, these generic units of industrialization, would be much the same with regard to their structure and general features wherever they are located. At any rate, this would be true for countries at the same stage of industrial development having the same sort of political system. For example, organisations throughout Western Europe operate in similar contexts and under the same pressures which would lead towards uniformity. The accelerated volume of trade within Europe and increasing collaboration and overlapping ownership between EU organisations would, naturally, lead to the establishment of a common Western European management style. Of course, such a case assuming or alleging that industry, management and companies are everywhere and always the same is not accepted. On the contrary, the assumption that societal culture causes the business climate and approach to management is the prevalent one (Tayeb, 1993). Even the creation of the single common market of EU, requiring common technologies and similar modern distribution and marketing methods from each organisation, does not illustrate any visible cultural assimilation, but rather a cultural synergy1. European managers in general have been reared in societies with long and deep traditions and are too conscious of their past to put aside their diversities for the sake of Europeanisation2. There can be a similar managerialism, which could be called a European managerial culture, but how far this extends; how far managers in Europe do some things the same way is an issue of analytical purposes only. Managing and organizing are not activities isolated from society, carried out by automatons in executive suits according to the universal management principles, in some glassed-in managerial sphere (Hickson, 1993, p.252). Each manager is a person formed by a society, and so the processes of managing and organizing are not separable from societies and their cultures. Hence, the last few years have seen a renewed interest in national differences and a series of comparative studies of the extent of company structure and education systems, as well as the socio-cultural factors which impinge on management style. Nowadays, it is accepted that one can generalize across individual differences in various countries and generate characterizations, either normative or empirical or both, of management styles which particular countries exhibit (Barsoux and Lawrence, 1990). This paper aims to consider the distinctiveness of the British management style on a number of dimensions. The examination of managerial practices in the UK and the relevant issues addressed are based on the interpretation with the case of management application in The Body Shop. The experience of The Body Shop as an international retailer provides us with a fine illustration of both the strengths and weaknesses of the typical British management style. In order to familiarize himself with The Body Shop case, the reader is strongly advised to look over the companys case study written by Gibson-Sweet (1994, in Harris and McDonald), before continuing with the following sections of this paper. 2. UK management Because of the fact that the United Kingdom is a multi-cultural society, identifying the typical characteristics of English managers was never an easy task3. Nevertheless, several studies have been conducted towards that purpose. Hofstede (1984) and Tayeb (1988) for example have attributed to the English a list of distinctive cultural features with direct effect on the way they conduct business. This section discusses some of the most significant features attributed to the English management with references to the case of The Body Shop. Individualism: The origins of individualism, independent thinking and self-confidence in England should be traced long back into history. The protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism were, in fact, the major driving forces behind the Industrial Revolution. Britons have a high regard for liberty and independence. Hence, they have cultivated a strong entrepreneurial mentality and flair. This is illustrated in the laissez faire economic context which they established for more than two hundred years, and which opposed government interference and supported unrestricted economic liberty and free competition4. Consequently, the English had traditionally developed considerable competences in dealing with export markets and responding to foreign competitors and to a flood of imports without going bust or requiring immediate trade protection. The surprising successful development and expansion of franchising in England is a clear reflection of this distinctive capacity of the British entrepreneurs. The Body Shop success owes much to this business formula. Managerial consciousness, anti-technical orientation: British managers are proud of being good all-rounders (Barsoux and Lawrence, 1990). They have a generalist outlook which is akin to the belief that management is something separable from the technical aspects of a job. Related to this idea of generalism is the notion of managerial consciousness, as against technical-orientation which is very profound in Germany. No wonder, therefore, why British managers do not tend to be especially technically minded, since such expertise is not deemed to enhance their managerial reputation or performance. Whereas German top executives would describe themselves first and foremost as specialists, British ones see themselves as managers in more generalist terms, and somewhat detached from production. Naturally, German managers are expected to be too narrow, while Britons have a much broader vision. Both Anita and Gordon Roddick had not any particular technical background but proved to be very successful all-round managers. Informality: In terms of personal exchanges, British managers are informal, especially by the standard of France or Germany. This is because British managers are in a certain way humanitarians. The Body Shop exemplifies this as it segments its market by factors such as the customers ideals and values, rather than by using technical standards. British take people as the point of reference, rather than systems objectives. In Britain, there is a conviction that management is based on individuals, not committees, systems or rule books. People are the frame of reference (Barsoux and Lawrence, 1990, p. 119). This in turn has meant that mush is achieved by means of social acceptance. Hence, influencing and conjoining is essentially persuasive5. That is why British managers take pride in showing off their ability to shape, influence and decide in informal ways and are marked by a strong grasp of political manoeuvring and manipulative skills. This attitude partly explains why British managers tend to have a negative view of conflict. Open conflict between managers is very rare as it is seen ungentlemanly rather than a means of correcting deviations, testing ideas and exerting creativity; the way it is viewed in say Germany or America. Coping well with uncertainty and setbacks: Americans and Japanese are famous for the systematic way into which they gather data and carry out market research in an effort to enhance strategic decision-making. This is not the British style at all. Environmental scanning, SWOT analysis and the like are not typical for Britain. This does not imply that strategy or forward planning is rejected, but rather that it is intuitive. Britons would argue that the full range of options, rationally conceived in an explicit and formal corporate planning, are unlikely to be realised in practice. Anita Roddicks decision to not enter Eastern Europe, for example, was mostly based on vague personal judgements and intuition, rather than market research evidences of the regions unprofitable potentials (in fact there are indications for the opposite; Alexander, 1996). In alignment to the above argument, British managers have a high tolerance for ambiguity and cope well with uncertainty and unexpected setbacks. Of course, this brand of intuitive pla nning becomes a powerful competitive advantage in todays turbulent, fast moving business environment where flexibility, initiative-taking and adaptability to change is paramount. But, exactly because the British feel comfortable in situations where not everything is explicit and space is provided for manoeuvring and exercising personal judgement, they tend to undervalue educational credentials. British companies put a stronger emphasis on pragmatism rather than professionalism, while personal qualities and background (a vague leadership quality and motivating ability as opposed to strict functional attributes), appear to receive the most frequent mention, both in relation to top and middle management. Decentralization: Bigness provides vital economies of scale, financial resources and muscle in the market. However, today it is more flexibility and responsiveness that matter for success. The argument of size is no longer all-pervasive6. Moreover, recession in the early 1980s made corporate restructure necessary for survival. British companies responded with leaner and fitter structures as well as a move towards decentralization7. SBUs were the most obvious manifestation of this transition. The application of decentralised management, in contrast to functional management, encourages autonomy and entrepreneurship and helps to motivate people by making them better informed, more responsible and giving them more control. Thus, UK companies witnessed their managers engaging in initiatives and nurtured the managerial talent they needed. Decentralization has been proved especially appropriate in sectors which are subject to rapid technical or market changes, notably services. In retailing, initiative inno vation adaptation are by far more significant factors of success than control and economies of scale, providing, thus, a strong argument in favour of decentralised structures and approaches to management which UK enterprises have mastered exceptionally well over the past two decades. The Body Shop case is a clear reflection of this: its success was built on creative initiatives and innovation, not on its size and say effective financial control. Democratic management style: There is a wide agreement that control in British business organisations is relatively dispersed. In other words, the democratic style, also referred to as participative or semi-constitutional is the prevalent one in British firms. It can be reflected on the fact that subordinates are consulted in decision-making and are given wide opportunities to exercise discretion in their work. Contrary to the autocratic, paternalistic approach that German firms share, top management in UK displays a willingness to delegate to lower management and counts on the subordinates strong sense of responsibility. Even in the case of UKs small, family-run firms (where a paternalistic pattern is supposed to emerge), British managers (and owners in most cases) do not portray a pure autocratic style, but rather a mixture of democratism autocratism, which is referred to as sophisticated paternalism. Thus, UKs family businesses manage to retain a decentralised decision-making approach while upholding their d istinctive social ethos and religious dissent. This is very evident in many UK firms (e.g. Cadbury, Clarks), but most of all in The Body Shop. However, there are many who suggest that Anita and Gordon Roddick should give up insisting on operating the company along what are essentially family-run lines as this seems to be inappropriate and potentially damaging for the companys future prosperity. Conservatism: The English are widely seen to be a nation with a love for the past, traditionalism, conservatism, and a reluctance to change. Anita Roddick refused to change the business practices applied to The Body Shop no matter how the City or the economic recession forced her to do so. Moreover, she seems not to take advantage of the possibilities offered to franchising from the Internet (Wymbs, 2000), mostly because of conservatism than of any other particular reason. The British conservatism partly explains their reluctance on applying modern technology in their businesses. However, due to this stubbornness on using outdated machinery, British firms missed the opportunity to become first movers in many industries and, subsequently, faced formidable catch-up problems. Lack of ambition: Despite the resurgence in their desire to do business during the 1980s, mostly as a result of the Thatcherism (The Economist, 1989), Britons display little love for business. Involvement in entrepreneurial activity for the purpose of making money has never been respectable. This should be traced to the English educational system and its dominant values. Traditionally, arts and classics were given high priority relatively to engineering and technology. In business conditions, the goal has been traditionally satisfactory rather than outstanding performance. Domestic rivalry is viewed as distasteful, vulgar and certainly ungentlemanly. Therefore, UK firms lack the strong profit orientation of the Americans or the market expansionism of the Japanese. Merging rather than competing is a common choice or perceived necessity. In this respect, the franchising system, on which The Body Shop relied much, fits very well the typical anti-rivalry notion found in Britain. Low value placed on education: Compared with their counterparts in other advanced nations, British managers are still under-educated and poorly trained, notwithstanding the recent growth in university and college provision8. In Britain there has been an anti-intellectual tradition which devalues training, particularly of a vocational kind (Barsoux and Lawrence, 1990; Lane, 1989; Keeble, 1992; Gospel, 1992). Porter (1990) comments on the British educational system as lagging behind virtually all the nations he studied! The country traditionally relied on practicing at doing the job to produce its managerial stock. Naturally, business owners provide very limited support to vocational training as they see it as a cost, a waste of their precious capital, rather than an investment with long-term benefits9. Industrial management in Britain did not attract the intellectual elite and had a relatively small intake of university graduates (Fitzgerald, 1993). The relative value placed on finance (a degree in accounting is he ld to be an ideal qualification for a top management post) suggests an emphasis on the short-term at the expense of the long-term, with research being the prime victim. The process of education is of central importance and needs some further elaboration. The continued under-investment in human capital provided little opportunities for the British economy to exploit its pool of gifted labour force and elevate it from the mere status of gifted amateurs (Jones 1997). One reason that explains the under-developed pattern of vocational education in UK lies at the, until very recently, states deliberate low involvement, even denial of responsibility to the issue. Consequently it was left as a matter for employers and unions. But, as explained above, line management was never persuaded of the direct link between profitability and competitiveness through training and regarded training schemes as an overhead to be cut when profits were threatened. The deepening recession in the 1980s made emp loyers even les willing to invest on training. Moreover, criticism has been levelled at the wide variety of inappropriate training schemes existing in Britain (Lane, 1989). For example, the apprenticeship system was highly inefficient in terms of responsiveness to changing production conditions and contributed even further to the generation of low-skilled labour. Several quotations (Bierhoff and Prais, 1993; Roffe, 1999; Matlay, 1999) for improving both the quantity and quality of vocational education in UK, arguing for the need of a more systematic and homogenous system have been occasionally proposed but not headed. Short-termism: English managers have a very short-term perspective in business planning relative to their major competitors, especially the Japanese and German. In middle management this can be seen in the flair for improvisation. Higher up in the company it manifests itself in the willingness to cut or defer such thing as advertising or RD expenditure in order to meet year-end budgets without worrying about the long-term repercussions of such a course of action10 (Gordon, 1990; Handy, 1988). In this respect, emphasis on growth (as this is seen in France), market share (as in Japan) and continuous quality improvement (like Germany) is not evident in British enterprises. Anti-industrial orientation: British culture has a large alleged impact on the development of anti-industrial orientation, evident on the low esteem that traditionally a career in British industry carried. Hofstede (1984) provides an element of explanation on the basis that British rank very high in the individualistic and uncertainty avoidance cultural dimension. Therefore, Britons have an inherent inclination on risky and entrepreneurial, rather than manufacturing, capital-based activities. British managers continued to prefer old machinery and production processes exactly because of this personal value system which favoured trading, rather than manufacturing. However, this attitude meant the downfall of the British manufacturing industry and a relative decline in the indigenous economy in a sequential manner (Van Ark, 1990; Dintenfass, 1992) as this can be portrayed by stats such as: GDP growth, national income, volume of trade exports and so on (Davis et al, 1992, Dicken, 1999). The Body Shop, on the other h and, illustrates a very good example of how British firms establish competitive advantages not by using modern, hi-tech machinery, but rather through intuition and originality. The Body Shop managed to promote the green issue in a genuine and passionate way, promoting wider societal issues through sponsorship and captured the imagination of consumers worldwide. The companys advertising expenses were grounded to zero; still its marketing approach was highly successful. The Body Shop case, then, moves us to a consideration that will be further elaborated in the following chapter: that British firms have lost their edge on manufacturing but, in the mean time, enhanced their worldwide competitive position in the service sector and in industries like retailing. In this respect, the British economy has mastered a transition from an industry-oriented one to a services-oriented one. 3. UK management and retailing: an integrated approach Insufficient investments in modern technology, industrial relations problems and low level of skill and motivation in the labour force affected productivity and condemned Britains manufacturing industry. However, when it comes to the service sector, the whole picture is very different. For example, while in heavy manufacturing the German labour productivity is found to be 22% higher than that of British as a result of differences in physical capital and engineer-related human capital (OMahony, 1992), such a difference has not been experienced in less capital-intensive and less engineer-related industries (food, drink tobacco, textiles, chemicals). Britain experienced a rapid growth of the service sector as early as in the 19th century, but was exceptional in the 1980s and 1990s (Godley and Fletcher, 2000). Today British firms outperform most of their counterparts in the service sector. In regards of specific industries, such as retailing and financial services, this is very profound (Millward, 1990). The typical British personal capitalism (Chandler, 1990) concept suits the purposes of such industries where the production process is relatively straightforward, offers few opportunities for economies of scale but many opportunities for innovation and entrepreneurial initiatives (Jones, 1997). Take as example the creative ideas of Anita Roddick and the originality of her business practices. Without having sufficient funds, she built the companys success only by relying on her wits. More importantly, since The Body Shops competences are not based on technology and machinery utilization but on its founders creativity, intuition and entrepreneurial capacities, the companys business model is very hard to be imitated and the competitive advantages deriving from it are highly sustainable. British firms, especially in 1970s and 1980s pursued successful strategies of product differentiation and product diversification and possessed capabilities in brand management and distribution, which they employed both in extensive exporting activity and through extensive multinational investments (Alexander, 1997). The British competitive performance in the service sector contradicts the image of British enterprise lacking organisational capability in manufacturing industry. Indeed, research by Balasubramanyam (1992) shows that British corporations in retailing appeared to possess competitive strengths in highly developed management skills, in effect, financial management and marketing management, rather than in production management. Jones (1993) adds to the list of Britains core competences the following: incumbency, experience, and powerful intangible assets, most notably reputation for honesty and stability. Jones and Morgan (1994) suggest that such entrepreneurial and trading skills may have been inherited from the family-firm tradition. The culturist hypothesis suggested in previous sections of this paper might explain the outstanding British performance in such kinds of managerial skills. The above clearly suggest that a distinction must be made between the competitiveness of the British firms in manufacturing and in services (Jones, 1994). Throughout the postwar period and into the 1990s the British retailers were the largest sectorial direct investors in the United States, a position maintained by extensive acquisition activity (Lipsey, 1993). This must have involved considerable organisational and management skills, or else it could not have been sustained. Britons possess skills that evolve into strong core competences when it comes to the service sector and particularly the retailing. Hence, generalizations such as those of Porters slide of Britain (1990) and the Chandlerian critiques should consider more thoroughly the British strength in the less capital intensive and technology oriented industries such as: consumer branded goods (including beverages, confectionary products, cosmetics, perfumes, household products and so on), retailing, financial related servic es, auctioneering, entertainment, publishing, leisure products, consultancy, advertising. Britains broad strength in services partly reflects demand conditions. In business services, a combination of skilled human resources and early industrial strength has given British firms a solid position. In retailing, strength in high-end consumer goods (luxury and wealth-related products) was further supported by a sophisticated domestic demand retained, especially around London. Many of the industries in which Britain still has competitive advantage, technological change has not been significant enough to provide worldwide competitors with a lever to supplant British firms on the basis of their technological superiority, especially in the high-end segments that are not price-sensitive and where buyers value traditional methods. Finally, those areas where UK firms have sustained competitive advantage partly owe it to related and supported industries. In consumer goods and services, a vibrant retail sector has created pressures to innovate. This environment has been a fertile one for British firms to develop skills in consumer marketing. The City of London illustrates a classical example of a sector built upon the concept of clustering11. The dynamism of the cluster has attracted firms from all over the world, solidifying Londons position as Europes financial centre. 4. Conclusions Overall, in response to historic, ecologic and evolutionary processes, UK has created a culture and social climate which stand English managers and their companies in good stead in many respects, but handicap them in some others (Schneider and Barsoux, 1997). Their honesty, trust, self-control, and creativity are their major cultural assets, while their individualism, professionalism and reserve give an impersonal and formal air to business dealings. However, in their effort to deal with competitive markets, they are hampered by unhelpful aspects of their culture and their society. These include capital market short-termism, less-than-favourable attitudes to business, traditionalism, reluctance to embrace new technology wholeheartedly, and ill-prepared school leavers and university graduates. Of course, in retailing, as the case of The Body Shop clearly illustrates, UK management style is highly successful, as most of the negative cultural influences do not affect their performance i n the industry, while the positive ones are those that really matter and provide them with a competitive edge. We have looked at the British management style as at a national level, but this is not the only option. Style may also be construed diachronically, as an expression of a society -and a world- in transition. With this in mind, one might ask what the future will bring in British management. The chances must favour a gradual convergence with Western Europe in ways of managing and organizing, if only because so many influences lead that way. But it is likely to be drawing together that will never completely come together. In other words there are likely to be more similarities, but differences will persist. 5. Notes In fact, Hofstede (1993) explicitly argues that culturally, Europe does not exist. In his studies (1984), the EU countries seem to broaden diachronically their already well-established heterogeneity in terms of cultural values. He also comments on a paradox: despite the fact that Europeans are genetically more homogenous relatively to North Americans, culturally they are significantly more heterogeneous. The notion that Europeans are culturally alike, even if they look more or less alike, goes against the initial optimism of the founders of the EU, who believed in cultural convergence through economic activity. It is still in conflict with the assumptions of many national politicians, journalists, members of the public, and particularly, many non-Europeans. Moreover, the traditional conflicting nature of the relationship between the working and the middle class puts in question even the existence of a homogenous English culture. However, similarities between the two classes are far greater than their differences. Also, their exposition to common social institutions and a constant fusion of values and attitudes among them is such that, in the end, their only basic difference lies to their family upbringing (Tayeb, 1993). It would be, therefore, safe to assume that the two classes are sufficiently alike to talk about an English culture. Besides, there is possibly no nation in which total class homogeneity exists, but historically, this fact did not pose serious threats to the emergence of distinctive national cultures. Of course, the contemporary economy can hardly be called a pure version of capitalism since it is characterized by a mixture of freedom and control, and of private and state enterprise. The emphasis on freedom or control shifted from time to time depending on the policies pursued by the government of the day (conservative governments applied no control beyond fiscal policies, while labour governments tended to use direct control mechanisms). The strongest weapon the British employ for their persuasion to be as gentle as possible is, of course, their humor. Their readiness to joke about business matters is very distinctive. Efficiency, productivity and profit are constant targets for wisecracks. Humor is seen as a device for distancing the unpleasant parts of business life and a safety valve for preserving managerial sanity, perhaps a means of coping with defeat. However, as Barsoux and Lawrence (1990) argue, exactly because jokes suspend reality momentarily, British managers are left with the option not to react. The subversive impact of jokes prevents them of being effective as change agents. The theme of Big Business which was dominant in Europe till the early 1980s failed to respond to the changing European environment since then (low labour productivity growth, high unemployment, slow innovation and low profit margins). The transaction cost theory (Hennart, 2000) or internalisation theory (Buckley and Casson, 1978) provides us with a consistent explanation based on the premise that variations in transaction costs alter the optimum size of firms. Hence, falling transaction costs since 1980s forced a fall in the optimum size of firms making the National Champions highly uncompetitive and SMEs (mostly family-businesses) the emerging pattern. According to others (e.g. Lane, 1989; Jones, 1994), the decentralised nature of UK management is mostly a result of the way British firms actually grew, in effect, through mergers and acquisitions rather than organic growth. This pattern created large firms consisted of a number of small firms, which did not undertake a thorough rationalization of production activity. Such a structure necessitated a decentralised mode of decision-making, regardless of what sentiments top management had on this matter. Lane (1989) provides data from the IMS which illustrate that in contrast to Germany and other advanced European economies, British young people have until very recently gone straight into employment after finishing their compulsory secondary schooling without receiving any vocational education at all. Investment in training by industry has been estimated by Porter (1990) at far less than 1% of revenues in Britain, compared to 2% in Germany and 3% in Japan. For comparative purposes, Germany is found to be far more ahead than UK in the rate of enterprises using the technically most advanced processes and machinery, such as CAD, CNC tools and flexible manufacturing systems. The faster adoption of sophisticated technological devices and processes by Germans can explain their superiority over British firms in high-technology products (Lane, 1989). Porter (1998) uses the term cluster to refer to the geographical concentrations of interconnected companies in a particular location. Other terms used in bibliography for the same purpose, more or less, are agglomeration and industrial districts.

The Conflict Between Conformity and Individuality in Willa Cathers Pau

The Conflict Between Conformity and Individuality in Willa Cather's Paul's Case Willa Cather’s â€Å"Paul’s Case,† displays the conflict between conformity and individuality through the main character, Paul. On a number of occasions, Paul is forced to lie and steal to escape the conformists who wish to control him and stifle his unique imagination. However, his lying, stealing, and attempts to escape the conformists, only force Paul into isolation, depression, and feeling a sense of shame for his individuality. Throughout the story one might see Cather’s constant contrast of individuality versus conformity, as well as Paul’s lying and stealing. Cather seems to draw the conclusion that extreme individuals, much like Paul are simply misunderstood, and not offered the acceptance they desire from conformist society. One way Cather contrasts individuality and conformity is through detailed descriptions of Paul’s character: Paul’s appearance, Paul’s unusual mannerisms, and Paul’s open criticisms of conformity. Collectively, these three characteristics assert Paul’s individuality. Paul’s appearance is described in detail at the beginning of the story and provides the foundation of his individuality: â€Å"Paul was tall for his age and very thin, with high, cramped shoulders and a narrow chest†(Pg. 1). One only needs to reach the second paragraph of the story and realize Paul does not fit in, which can be accredited to Cather’s careful word choice â€Å"for his age.† Most young individuals, specifically in Paul’s teenage age bracket, will struggle for acceptance from their peers; however it appears that Paul makes little effort in this regard. Paul’s unusual mannerisms are also worthy of analysis, and aid in creating a mental picture of this unusual young man. Cather uses Paul’s meeting with the faculty of his educational facility to convey the irritating and intimidating qualities of his mannerisms. She writes, â€Å"His teachers felt this afternoon that his whole attitude was symbolized by his shrug and his flippantly red carnation flower, and they fell upon him without mercy†¦. He stood through it smiling, his pale lips parted over his white teeth. (His lips were continually twitching, and he had a habit of raising his eyebrows that was contemptuous and irritating to the last degree)†(Pg.2). Combined with the description of Paul’s physical appearance, his mannerisms now... ...nearly always wore the guise of ugliness, that a certain element of artificiality seemed to him necessary in beauty†(Pg. 7). With this in mind, Paul’s actions seem deliberate, as if he knew what he was doing all along, again supporting the theory that he was simply wallowing in misery, crying for help. In conclusion, Willa Carther’s â€Å"Paul’s Case† is an interesting glimpse into the world of a young boy, who’s individuality is constantly in conflict with the conformist society that surrounds him. In attempts to escape this reality, Paul loses himself in a fantasy world of art, lies, and thievery. In this attempt to escape, Paul slips into isolation and depression. Carther in this regard is very careful on how she portrays Paul, to brink about some sympathy from the reader as he is simply a troubled young man. In the end, Paul’s individuality and societies refusal of him leads to Paul’s demise. The sympathy Cather creates for Paul leaves one questioning if society simply should have supported Paul’s individuality, instead of letting him slip away. Paul’s death seems to support this theory, as not a single reader would have wished such a cruel ending to the life of a dreamer.

Joseph Conrads Heart of Darkness Essay -- Heart Darkness Joseph Conra

Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness" Joseph Conrad's novel "Heart of Darkness" written in 1902 is an overwhelming chronicle of Marlow's journey into the heart of the African continent. It is one of the most influential novels of the twentieth century. In this ghastly and horrific tale, Marlow leads an expedition up the Congo River, only to find everything is not as it seems. This haunting and mysterious story takes him into the unbearable core of the jungle. The novel also explores trade and exploration, imperialism and colonization. The use of darkness means several things in this book. It is used in the title, as "Heart of Darkness" many people doesn't understand the book, or the meaning it brings with it. I feel that the title represents much more, it has many meanings. The first being, the darkness and evil of somebody. In the book, the evil comes out of Marlow and Kurtz, as they get deeper into the jungle, the more evilness comes out from inside their hearts. I think that Conrad is trying to show us, that everyone is the same, until they get somewhere else an...

Prejudice: A Worldwide Problem :: essays research papers

Prejudice: A Worldwide Problem There is a dangerous and often deadly problem in the world today. It reaches beyond political and religious boundaries and spans across all economic and social statuses. It affects the homeless, middleclass, and the richest people in society. The problem is prejudice. In America, when we think of prejudice we often think of it in terms of Black and White. However, prejudice is much more than that. It is a broad term that can encompass things like racism, sexism, and religious persecution. The Encarta World English Dictionary defines prejudice as "a preformed opinion, usually an unfavorable one, based on insufficient knowledge, irrational feelings, or inaccurate stereotypes" and "the holding of opinions that are formed beforehand on the basis of insufficient knowledge". When I read those definitions, I have to wonder why prejudice still exists today. If it really is based on "insufficient knowledge", then it seems to me that there is no logical reason why prejudice is still so prevalent. Throughout our entire lives we are exposed to issues dealing with prejudice. In school we study history, geography, government, and psychology, and at some point in each of those subjects, the issue of prejudice is more than likely discussed. In the corporate world we attend countless classes and seminars on discrimination, and sensitivity training on issues that could be deemed prejudicial. The issues are well known and a vast amount of information is ava ilable on the subject, so how can "insufficient knowledge" and "preformed opinions" still be a factor? I believe it is because when we discuss prejudice or any other similar issue, we tend to discuss it at a societal level as opposed to a personal level. We discuss the history of prejudice and talk about things like slavery in America and Hitler's persecution of the Jews, but we never discuss the prejudice that we, as individuals, experience everyday. Certainly, no one would stand up in a classroom, point a finger at a student, and ask accusatively, "What act of prejudice did you commit today?" That would not be "politically correct". How then, can we bring this issue down to a personal level? Someone once said to me, that if I didn't like jelly donuts, then I was prejudiced. The issue of whether or not I like jelly donuts is not an issue of prejudice, but rather a personal distaste for jelly donuts, based on the fact that I have tried several different types and determined that I do not like them.

Max webber

This is a study of the bureaucratic characteristics of Turkish elementary and secondary schools Little is known about the organization and foundation of these schools. This study Is d beginning In an effort to develop d body of literature In these schools. Max Weber's (in Gerth ; Mills, 1946) thinking and Hall's (1961) operationalization of bureaucracy form the theoretical foundation for the study.Because the construct of alienation is the main construct that has been studied with relation to bureaucracy, this study also examines the relationships between ureaucracy and sense of power as a measure of alienation. Context Organizations surround us. Bureaucracy Is d blueprint for organlzlng human activities for a desired end. It is a sociological phenomenon that has evolved throughout the history ot clvlllzauon. As a sociological tool It has been used to bulld pyramids, to invade nations, to cure illnesses, to keep criminals incarcerated, to land on Mars, to massacre millions, to educat e. nd so on. It Is the tool of power, an â€Å"effective† device to control and direct human effort and behavior. The bureaucratic theory of Max Weber has been a point of departure for the development and odification of organization structure to Influence the flow of Interrelationships within organizations (Hall, 1963). The degree of bureaucracy in an organization sets the boundaries tor human action. These boundaries that regulate people's treedom have a by-product known as alienation.The construct of alienation has been studied with relation to bureaucracy. It has been demonstrated that people who work in bureaucracies have a limited â€Å"say† In what they do. For good or for evil, bureaucracy is the machinery to control human behavior. What matters is how to use this device without alienating people. chools are one of the forms of bureaucracy where a large portion of our lives is spent Schools prepare youth for bureaucracies. If the schools are the places that prep are people tor bureaucratized lite. hen, the teachers in them are the agents of bureaucracies. If teachers are alienated, society may also be alienated It is possible that certain problems ascribed to bureaucracies can be related to d certain degree of bureaucracy In organizations. All organizations are bureaucratic toa degree. Human lite, even before It begins and after It ends, is in contact with bureaucratic organizations. Organizations will ontinue to dominate and alienate our lives It is worthwhile to understand what bureaucracy Is and what problems are associated with It. ureducracles surround The orlgln ot the Bureaucratic Theory Since translations of Max Weber's works into the English language during the second part of the 1940s, a vast literature on organizations, In general, and on bureaucracy, 1 Of6 In partlcular, nas Deen generated. Max weDer (Ge in favor of bureaucratic organization: argued as Tollows The decisive reason for the advantage of bureaucratic organization ha s always been its purely technical superiority over any form of organization. The fully developed bureaucratic mechanism compares with other organizations exactly as does the machine with the non-mechanical modes of production.Precision, speed, unambiguity, knowledge of files, continuity, discretion, unity, strict subordination, reduction of friction, and of material and personal costs– these are raised to the optimum point in the strictly bureaucratic administration, and especially in its monocratic form. As compared with the collegiate, honorific, and avocation forms of administration, trained bureaucracy is superior on all these points. (p. 214) Max Weber (Etzioni, 1961) listed organizational attributes that when present, constitute the bureaucratic form of organization. 1 A continuous organization of official functions bound by rules. A specific sphere of competence. 3 The organization of offices follows the principal of hierarchy; that is, each lower office is under the control and supervision of a higher one. 4 The rules which regulate the conduct of an office may be technical rules or norms. 5 It is a matter of principle that members of the administrative staff should be completely separated from ownership of the means of production or administration. In order to enhance the organizational freedom, the resources of the organization have to be free of any outside control and the positions cannot be monopolized by any incumbent. 7 Administrative acts, decisions, and any rules are formulated and recorded in writing. (pp. 53-54) Based on the theory developed by Max Weber, researchers used bureaucratic theory as an analytical tool to examine organizational structure. Until the 1960s, case studies were used to assess bureaucratic characteristics of organizations. These studies were called unidimensional approach to the study of organization. Researchers who used the unidimensional approach believed that all characteristics of bureaucracy must be presen t to a high degree in an organization before it can be called a bureaucracy.During the late 1950s this approach was questioned. Researchers started to think that all characteristics of bureaucracy might not be present in an organization at the same time. Some characteristics can be stronger than others. Characteristics could be independent of each other. Bureaucratic characteristics or dimensions could create different configurations of bureaucracies. Since the 1960s, imensional approaches to study bureaucracy have been used. Hall (1961) was among the first to measure bureaucratic dimensions in organizations empirically.Hall (1961) was the first to develop a survey instrument to measure the degree of bureaucratization in organizations. After an extensive literature review, he identified six dimensions of bureaucracy: hierarchy of authority, division of labor, rules and regulations, procedural speclTlcatlons, Impersonallty, ana tecnnlcal competence. HIS instrument (Organizational Inv entory) has 62 items. All dimensions have 10 items xcept for hierarchy of authority, which has 12 items. Modified versions of his instrument have been used in educational settings to assess school bureaucratization.Researchers have added more items to his instrument during modifications. Hall's instrument was first modified by the Canadian researcher, MacKay (1964), to measure six dimensions of bureaucracy in educational settings. In Canada, Robinson (1966), Kolesar (1967) and Punch (1967) continued to use and refine the Mackay's instrument. These Canadian researchers were followed by Anderson (1970), Isherwood ( 1971), and Sousa (1980) in the U. S. Researchers using modified versions of Hall's instrument have consistently found six dimensions of bureaucracy clustered around two overall higher-order dimensions.Hall (1961) warned that one of the six dimensions could be an abureaucratic dimension. He found that the technical 4 competence dimension was inversely correlated with three d imensions. Mackay (1964) and Robinson (1966) also found that the dimensions did not converge under a single overall dimension. Punch (1967) found that six dimensions formed two higher order dimensions. Hierarchy of authority, rules and regulations, procedural pecifications, and impersonality clustered together while division of labor and technical competence clustered together.The higher order dimension formed by the first set of dimensions is a measure of bureaucratization while the higher order dimension formed by the second set of dimensions is a partial measure of professionalism. Isherwood and Hoy (1973) confirmed that Hall's six dimensions cluster under two separate second order dimensions. Purpose The purpose of this study is to explore the utility of Hall's conceptualization of bureaucracy in analyzing the organizational structure of Turkish elementary and econdary schools. Research on educational organizations in Turkey is not as advanced as it is in the western countries.T urkey adopted its centralized ministry system from European nations. No empirical studies were found on structural characteristics of Turkish public schools. Researchers do not have an empirical base to help them understand how organizations function. It is hoped that this study will start a literature base on the subject and provide a tool to assess the organizational structure of schools that is desperately needed in Turkey. Also an empirical llustration from Turkey might provide a useful addition to the literature because the literature on school organizations in developing countries is very limited.Researchers know little about how school bureaucracy functions in other cultures. Questions How are the bureaucratic dimensions of Turkish elementary and secondary schools related? What are the relationships between the bureaucratic dimensions of Turkish elementary schools and the demographic variables? wnat are tne relatlonsnlps Detween tne Dureaucratlc Olmenslons 0T lur s elementary and secondary schools and teachers' sense of power? 5 Definitions Major Variables A bureaucracy is an organizational form designed to accomplish large-scale administrative tasks by systematically coordinating the work of many individuals (Blau, 1956).Hierarchy of authority (HA) is â€Å"the extent to which the locus of decision making is prestructured by the organization†(Hall, 1968, p. 95). Division of labor or specialization (DL) is â€Å"the extent to which work tasks are subdivided by functional specialization within the organization† (Hall, 1968, p. 95). Rule enforcement or rules and regulations (RR) is â€Å"the degree to which the behaviors of organizational members re subject to organizational control† (Hall, 1968; p. 95).Procedural specification (PS) is â€Å"the extent to which organizational members must follow organizationally defined techniques in dealing with situations they encounter† (Hall, 1968, p. 95). Impersonality (IM) is â€Å"the e xtent to which both organizational members and outsiders are treated without regard to individual qualities†(Hall, 1968, p. 95). This dimension has two distinct factors. (1) Friendly climate (CLM) is the degree to which relations in the organization are friendly and warm. (2) Formality (FRM) is the degree to which nteractions among people are formal and free from emotions.The second factor was accepted as the measure of impersonality. The friendliness of the school climate is most likely to be an outcome variable rather than a structural variable. This variable was analyzed separately. Promotions based on technical competence (TC) is â€Å"the extent to which organizationally defined â€Å"universalistic† standards are utilized in the personnel selection and advancement (Hall, 1968, p. 95). Control is the degree to which bureaucratic authority is utilized to regulate teacher behaviors.Expertise is the degree to which professional authority is utilized to regulate teach er Sense of power (SP) is the extent to which a teacher believes he/she is able to influence the course of events in the school that holds significance for him/her (Moeller 1962). 6 Teacher's friendship with school administrators was measured by responses to the statement, † I have a friendship with school administrators outside the school,† on a five-point Likert type scale ranging from 1 = definitely inaccurate to 5 = definitely accurate . Demographic Variables Name of city is the school district where the teacher works.It is operationalized as the name of the township: Karabuk (1), Safranbolu (2), Eflani (3), Eskipazar (4), Yenice (5), and Ovacik (6). Number of sessions is a two-category variable. Teachers were grouped into two categories ( ) teacners wno work at scnools tnat run one sesslon a cay ana teachers who work at schools that run two sessions a day. Level of the school refers to grades in the teacher's school. Teachers in elementary school (K-5) were coded as one, teachers in middle schools (6-8) were coded as two, and teachers in high schools (9-11) were coded as three.Size variables are (1) the number of teachers who are on the payroll of the teacher's school, (2) number of students enrolled in the teacher's school, (3) student-teacher ratio in the teacher's school, (4) number of classrooms in the teacher's school, and (5) number of administrators in the teacher's school. Age of the teacher's school is the number of years passed since the foundation of the school. Urbanization is a three-level categorical variable: teachers who work in urban schools, teachers who work in suburban schools, and teachers who work in rural schools. Urban was coded as one, suburban was coded as two, and rural was coded s three.Occupation of principal's father was a five-level categorical variable: teachers who work under principals whose fathers were farmers (coded 1), teachers who work under principals whose fathers were blue collar workers (coded 2), tea chers who work under principals whose fathers were small business owners (coded 3), teachers who work under principals whose fathers were civil servants (coded 4), and teachers who work under principals whose fathers were professionals (code 5). 7 Sex is the gender of the teacher. Male teachers were coded as one while female teachers were coded two.Socio-economic status of teacher was measured by three variables (1) growing up location of teacher, (2) number of sisters and brothers of teacher, and (3) father's occupation of teacher. The grown-up location of teacher was operationalized as rural (1), town (2), city (3), big city (4), and all (5). Father's occupation was categorized as small business owner (1), civil servant (2), blue-collar worker (3), and farmer (4). Socio economic status of students (SES) is the teacher's principal's perception of students socioeconomic status measured on a five point likert type scale.Principals ere asked to rate students in their school on a five- point scale ranging from very poor (1) to very wealthy (5). Political ties of teachers were measured on a five-point Likert- type scale. Teachers were asked to respond to following statement: â€Å"l know influential people who can help me if I am in trouble in this school. † Response options ranged from definitely inaccurate (1) to definitely accurate (5). Experience of teacher was measured by four variables: (1) age of teacher, (2) total service years of teacher in teaching, (3) total years in administrative positions and (4) ork experience outside teaching.The last variable, the work experience outside teaching, was a categorical variable. Teachers who had work experience outside teaching were assigned one while teachers who did not have work experience outside teaching were assigned two. Overall alienation from work was utilized to cnec tne vallOl ty 0T sense 0T power scale. leacners were asKea to response to tne following question: â€Å"Do you wish your child to pursue a career in teaching? † Those who said â€Å"†yes† were assigned â€Å"two† and those who said â€Å"no† were assigned â€Å"one. † Teacher's birthplace had two possible responses. Those who were born in the province, Karabuk, were assigned a â€Å"two. Those who were born outside the province were assigned a â€Å"one. † Training had three potential responses. Teachers who were not graduated from teacher colleges were assigned a â€Å"one,† teachers who were not graduated from teacher colleges but 8 earned teaching certificate by attending extra training were assigned a â€Å"two,† and regular teachers who were graduated from teacher colleges were assigned a â€Å"three. † Experience of principals had three measures: (1) age of teacher's principal, (2) total ears in administrative positions, and (3) total service years in education sector.These measures were obtained during school visitations. Percentage of male is the percentage of male teachers in teacher's school. Organization of the Study The relevant literature is reviewed in the second chapter. The third chapter deals with instrumentation and methodology. The findings of the pilot study are reported in the fourth chapter. The findings of the research sample are in the fifth chapter. After discussions of findings, recommendations for further research are presented in the sixth chapter.

Acer Case Study

From the beginning, Acer had been a component and equipment manufacturer for relabeled electronic products marketed and sold by recognized global companies. Along with the booming of the PC industry, came the need to produce PC components faster, cheaper and more efficiently. When a company faces market saturation, the most effective way to growth is to engaged in expanding its operations, and increase marketing and selling activities to another markets.With this case, Acer determined that they would take the company into the global electronics and personal computer playing field. This means that even though Acer makes their computers in Taiwan, they want to expand globally. To proceed with this process, Acer has to build a strong brand image with China. According to Stan Shih, his visions that building a stronger market base in greater China is the key to expand globally.Shih states, â€Å"The market in China is very critical for Taiwanese to become global companies† Shih bel ieves that if greater China becomes the home market, that Acer will be able to get the critical economies of scale, and they can develop and innovate new products that will succeed in China as well as the rest of the world. And He figured that Acer could take advantage of the benefits that regionally local markets offer in regards to competition, and to have a product on China’s turf. 2. How does the â€Å"global market/local market† paradox figure into Stan Shih's strategy for Chinaï ¼Å¸Answerï ¼Å¡Acer have a good chance to make China as their home market so Acer can capture critical economies of scale that will allow Acer to develop innovative new product for global market. And the other hand, Acer can use their image as global brand to building strong home market.3. Can Acer become the world’s third largest PC company behind Dell and Hewlett-Packard ?Answer : Yes it can be, Acer Inc. is a leading marketer of notebook and desktop PCs. The company, which post ed sales of $11.3 billion in 2006, alsoproduces other products such as flat-screen monitors and personal digital assistants. And Shih has discovered that building brands in the business-tobusiness market is easier than building brands in the business-to-consumer market.â€Å"Business-to-consumer brands have more value but also face more challenges†. Acer use more local than their compete and acquired US based gateway and Acer sell product in europe with low price that the advantage to become the third largest PC company behind Dell and HP.